As a consequence, release of peptide-containing vesicles is consi

As a consequence, release of peptide-containing vesicles is considered to be semi-independent from release of small synaptic vesicles (Leng and Ludwig,

2008). The neuropeptide-containing LDCVs can be released from all parts of a neuron, including the soma and dendrites. Magnocellular neurons of the SON and PVN are densely filled with LDCVs, and their dendrites, representing 85% of the total volume of the neuron, therefore contain very large amounts of OT and AVP. As with presynaptic release, dendritic release is dependent on the increase in intracellular calcium that results from mobilization of intracellular Ca2+ stores (Ludwig SAR405838 in vivo and Leng, 2006). Intracellular Ca2+ stores are extensive in somata and dendrites but often absent from nerve

terminals (Sabatier et al., 2007). Some factors can mobilize these stores without any direct increase in spike activity. Among these is α-MSH (α-melanocyte stimulating hormone), originating from preopiomelanocorticoid (POMC)-producing neurons in the arcuate nucleus and acting on melanocortin 4 (MC4) receptors in SON OT neurons (Ludwig and Leng, 2006). The behavioral actions of α-MSH are strikingly similar to those of OT, i.e., inhibition of food intake and stimulation of male sexual behavior, and indeed, it is possible that OT is a mediator of α-MSH actions (Olson et al., 1991). Peptide-evoked dendritic release selleck chemicals either is accompanied by another phenomenon of interest for neuronal networks: internal [Ca2+] mobilization can “prime” the secretory vesicles, i.e., make them available for release in response to subsequent electrical stimuli (Ludwig and Leng, 2006) This peptide-induced change in the function of a neuronal compartment produces a reconfiguration of the local neural network, opening new routes for communication between neurons. Priming can last for more than an hour, allowing for long-lasting behavioral effects (Sabatier et al., 2007). OT and AVP disappear

with a half-life of 20 min in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) (Ludwig and Leng, 2006). What is released centrally is degraded within brain tissue by aminopeptidases or enters the CSF, where it is cleared into the circulation by bulk flow. The aminopeptidases can cleave OT and AVP into shorter peptides, some of which have been shown to facilitate avoidance behavior of rats at concentrations 1000× smaller than AVP, although their efficiency as direct neuromodulators is much smaller than AVP (Burbach et al., 1983, see below). Though axonal fibers containing OT and AVP have been found in a large number of brain areas (see Table 1), local release from dendrites and subsequent diffusion has been proposed to present an important route of action. To estimate the radius of effectiveness of OT released from dendrites, Leng and Ludwig (2008) assumed a basal rate of secretion rate of 0.

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