In conclusion, osteopontin, a chemotactic protein with cytokine-like properties was found to be up-regulated in muscle injury caused by B. lanceolatus (fer-de-lance) snake. The upregulation of OPN occurred during the acute stage of inflammation and during myogenic cell proliferation and differentiation. The expression of OPN by cells
of a myogenic lineage, macrophages and fibroblasts agrees with its role as an adhesive chemotactic matricellular protein with cytokine-like properties that can modulate the expression of myogenic transcriptional factors and, hence, muscle regeneration. In our experimental model, three weeks after envenoming, the regenerating fibers were small, indicating delayed regeneration. Since OPN has been also described as pro-fibrotic protein in adverse conditions, its possible mediation PLX4720 in collagen deposition in the region of myoblast proliferation http://www.selleckchem.com/products/PD-0332991.html needs to be investigated. As far as we know, this is the only report to associate OPN expression in a rat model of muscle regeneration after the intramuscular injection of Bothrops snake venom. The authors have no conflict of interest related to this work. The authors thank Marta B. Leonardo, MSc, and Glauce Aparecida Pinto, PhD, for excellent technical assistance and Dr. Stephen Hyslop for criticism and revising the language. This work was supported by a grant from Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo
(FAPESP, grant no. 2005/60929-7). V.B.S. was supported by an MSc studentship from Coordenação de Olopatadine Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES), Brazil. S.P.I. was a post-doctoral researcher in the Venom and Toxin Laboratory of M.A.C.H. M.A.C.H. is supported by a research fellowship from Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), Brazil. “
“Microcystins (MCs) are a group of natural toxins produced by cyanobacteria which can be found in lakes, ponds and rivers. These cyanotoxins are hepatotoxic, causing serious human health problems by inhibition of some phosphatase proteins (Terao et al., 1994). MCs cause morphologic damage in the liver, starting with cytoskeletal disruption and loss of sinusoidal
structure. Liver weight is increased due to intrahepatic hemorrhage followed by hemodynamic shock, heart failure and death by hemorrhagic shock (Eriksson et al., 1990 and Chorus and Bartram, 1999). Zhang et al. (2008), demonstrated the role of reactive oxygen species induced by MC-RR on apoptosis sensitivity of Carassius auratus lymphocytes. In Brazil, tilapia species such as Tilapia rendalli and Oreochromis niloticus have been introduced for socioeconomic purposes since 1956 ( Gurgel and Fernando, 1994). Bioaccumulations in fish were observed in salmon that ate crab larvae containing MC ( Williams et al., 1997). Accumulation in liver and muscle of T. rendalli was demonstrated by Soares et al. (2004). This latter study showed that toxins could still be found in fish muscle several days after contamination.
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