There are several methods to measure

pigment–pigment inte

There are several methods to measure

pigment–pigment interactions that are correlated with qE. One spectroscopic change that occurs during qE is the \(\Updelta A_535\) signal (Krause 1973). This signal is determined by measuring the difference absorption spectra between light- and dark-acclimated leaves. At 535 nm, there is an increase selleck kinase inhibitor in absorption, which, on the basis of quantum mechanical modeling, is thought to be due to interactions between two carotenoids (violaxanthin or zeaxanthin) that occur only under qE conditions (Duffy et al. 2010). Another indicator of qE is the change in the resonance Raman spectrum of the leaf around 953 cm−1 after 5 min of exposure to actinic light (Robert 2009; Ruban et al. 2007). This change is thought

to be due to changes in the conformation of a neoxanthin carotenoid in LHCII. A third indicator of qE is an increase in far-red fluorescence thought to be emitted from LHCII (Johnson et al. 2011; Melis 1999). The \(\Updelta A_535\) signal, the 953 cm−1 resonance Raman signal, and the fluorescence red shift have been observed in vitro under conditions that promote the aggregation AZD2281 in vivo of LHCII. Based partly on this evidence, Ruban and coworkers proposed that qE occurs due to the aggregation of LHCII in the membrane, which causes the formation of a qE quenching site (Ruban et al. 2007). Recently, the Walla group developed a method for measuring the coupling between carotenoid and chlorophyll S1 excited states and showed that this coupling increases during qE and correlates with qE (Bode MG-132 solubility dmso et al. 2009;

Wilk et al. 2013). Based on a proposal by van Amerongen and van Grondelle, these results were suggested to be due to an excitonic state formed between the S1 state of a carotenoid and the Q y excited state of chlorophyll a that could quickly dissipate excitation energy (Bode et al. 2009; van Amerongen et al. 2001). Imaging and microscopy Assessing the extent to which membrane rearrangement plays a role in qE requires tools that can probe the spatial arrangement of proteins in the grana membrane. Lower resolution images of the membrane that can resolve the PSIIs and LHCIIs are beneficial in determining whether a large rearrangement occurs and dramatically changes the energetic connectivity between chlorophylls. A rearrangement could be required for the conformational changes that switch a pigment into a quencher, or it could itself serve to disconnect LHCs from RCs. Protein dynamics in living systems is typically observed by tagging proteins with fluorophores. However, because most of the proteins of interest are integral membrane proteins and the grana membrane is up to 80 % protein (Kirchhoff et al. 2008a), such tagging is experimentally difficult.

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